APJ Abdul Kalam Essay Example for Free

APJ Abdul Kalam Essay Introduction A savanna, or savannah, is a grassland ecosystem characterized by the trees being sufficiently widely spaced so that the canopy does not close. The open canopy allows sufficient light to reach the ground to support an unbroken herbaceous layer consisting primarily of grasses.[1][2][3] The oak savanna is a common type of savanna in the Northern Hemisphere. Some classification systems[which?] also recognize a grassland savanna from which trees are absent.[4] This article deals only with savanna under the common definition of a grassy woodland with a significant woody plant component. It is often believed that savannas feature widely spaced, scattered trees. However, in many savannas, tree densities are higher and trees are more regularly spaced than in forest. Savannas are also characterized by seasonal water availability, with the majority of rainfall confined to one season. Savannas are associated with several types of biomes. Savannas are frequently in a transitional zone between forest and desert or grassland. Savanna covers approximately 20% of the Earths land area. Etymology Cerrado savanna, Brazil. Although the term savanna is believed to have originally come from an Arawak word describing land which is without trees but with much grass either tall or short (Oviedo y Valdes, 1535), by the late 1800s it was used to mean land with both grass and trees. It now refers to land with grass and either scattered trees or an open canopy of trees. Spanish explorers familiar with the term sabana called the grasslands they found around the Orinoco River llanos, as well as calling Venezuelan and Colombian grasslands by that specific term. Cerrado was used on the higher savannas of the Brazilian Central Plateau. Distribution Many grassy landscapes and mixed communities of trees, shrubs, and grasses were described as savanna before the middle of the 19th century, when the concept of a tropical savanna climate became established. The Kà ¶ppen climate classification system was strongly influenced by effects of temperature and precipitation upon tree growth, and his oversimplified assumptions resulted in a tropical savanna classification concept which resulted in it being considered as a climatic climax formation. The common usage meaning to describe vegetation now conflicts with a simplified yet widespread climatic concept meaning. The divergence has sometimes caused areas such as extensive savannas north and south of the Congo and Amazon Rivers to be excluded from mapped savanna categories.[5] Barrens has been used almost interchangeably with savanna in different parts of North America. Sometimes midwestern savanna were described as grassland with trees. Different authors have defined the lower limits of savanna tree coverage as 5–10% and upper limits range as 25–80% of an area.[6] Two factors common to all savanna environments are rainfall variations from year to year, and dry season wildfires. In the Americas, e.g. in Belize, Central America, savanna vegetation is similar from Mexico to South America and to the Caribbean. Threats Changes in fire management Savannas are subject to regular wildfires and the ecosystem appears to be the result of human use of fire. For example, Native Americans created the Pre-Columbian savannas of North America by periodically burning where fire-resistant plants were the dominant species.[8] Pine barrens in scattered locations from New Jersey to coastal New England are remnants of these savannas. Aboriginal burning appears to have been responsible for the widespread occurrence of savanna in tropical Australia and New Guinea,[9] and savannas in India are a result of human fire use.[10] The maquis shrub savannas of the Mediterranean region were likewise created and maintained by anthropogenic fire.[11] Prescribed burn; Wisconsin bur oak savanna These fires are usually confined to the herbaceous layer and do little long term damage to mature trees. However, these fires either kill or suppress  tree seedlings, thus preventing the establishment of a continuous tree canopy which would prevent further grass growth. Prior to European settlement aboriginal land use practices, including fire, influenced vegetation[12] and may have maintained and modified savanna flora.[3][9] It has been suggested by many authors[12][13] that aboriginal burning created a structurally more open savanna landscape. Aboriginal burning certainly created a habitat mosaic that probably increased biodiversity and changed the structure of woodlands and geographic range of numerous woodland species.[9][12] It has been suggested by many authors[13][14] that with the removal or alteration of traditional burning regimes many savannas are being replaced by forest and shrub thickets with little herbaceous layer. The consumption of herbage by introduced grazers in savanna woodlands has led to a reduction in the amount of fuel available for burning and resulted in fewer and cooler fires.[15] The introduction of exotic pasture legumes has also led to a reduction in the need to burn to produce a flush of green growth because legumes retain high nutrient levels throughout the year, and because fires can have a negative impact on legume populations which causes a reluctance to burn.[16] Grazing and browsing animals Oak savanna, United States The closed forest types such as broadleaf forests and rainforests are usually not grazed owing to the closed structure precluding grass growth, and hence offering little opportunity for grazing.[17] In contrast the open structure of savannas allows the growth of a herbaceous layer and are commonly used for grazing domestic livestock.[18] As a result much of the worlds savannas have undergone change as a result of grazing by sheep, goats and cattle, ranging from changes in pasture composition to woody weed encroachment.[19] The removal of grass by grazing affects the woody plant component of woodland systems in two major ways. Grasses compete with woody plants for water in the topsoil and removal by grazing reduces this competitive effect, potentially boosting tree growth. In addition to this effect, the removal of fuel reduces both the intensity and the frequency of fires which  may control woody plant species.[21] Grazing animals can have a more direct effect on woody plants by the browsing of palatable woody species. There is evidence that unpalatable woody plants have increased under grazing in savannas.[22] Grazing also promotes the spread of weeds in savannas by the removal or reduction of the plants which would normally compete with potential weeds and hinder establishment.[12] In addition to this, cattle and horses are implicated in the spread of the seeds of weed species such as Prickly Acacia (Acacia nilotica) and Stylo (Stylosanthes spp.).[15] Alterations in savanna species composition brought about by grazing can alter ecosystem function, and are exacerbated by overgrazing and poor land management practices. Introduced grazing animals can also affect soil condition through physical compaction and break-up of the soil caused by the hooves of animals and through the erosion effects caused by the removal of protective plant cover. Such effects are most likely to occur on land subjected to repeated and heavy grazing.[23] The effects of overstocking are often worst on soils of low fertility and in low rainfall areas below 500 mm, as most soil nutrients in these areas tend to be concentrated in the surface so any movement of soils can lead to severe degradation. Alteration in soil structure and nutrient levels affects the establishment, growth and survival of plant species and in turn can lead to a change in woodland structure and composition. Tree clearing Large areas of Australian and South American savannas have been cleared of trees, and this clearing is continuing today. For example until recently 480,000 ha of savanna were cleared annually in Australia alone primarily to improve pasture production.[12] Substantial savanna areas have been cleared of woody vegetation and much of the area that remains today is vegetation that has been disturbed by either clearing or thinning at some point in the past. Clearing is carried out by the grazing industry in an attempt to increase the quality and quantity of feed available for stock and to improve the management of livestock. The removal of trees from savanna land removes the competition for water from the grasses present, and can lead to a two to fourfold increase in pasture production, as well as improving the quality of the feed available.[24] Since stock carrying capacity is strongly correlated  with herbage yield, there can be major financial benefits from the removal of trees,[25] such as assisting with grazing management: regions of dense tree and shrub cover harbors predators, leading to increased stock losses, for example,[26] while woody plant cover hinders mustering in both sheep and cattle areas.[27] A number of techniques have been employed to clear or kill woody plants in savannas. Early pastoralists used felling and girdling, the removal of a ring of bark and sapwood, as a means of clearing land.[28] In the 1950s arboricides suitable for stem injection were developed. War-surplus heavy machinery was made available, and these were used for either pushing timber, or for pulling using a chain and ball strung between two machines. These two new methods of timber control, along with the introduction and widespread adoption of several new pasture grasses and legumes promoted a resurgence in tree clearing. The 1980s also saw the release of soil-applied arboricides, notably tebuthiuron, that could be utilized without cutting and injecting each individual tree. In many ways artificial clearing, particularly pulling, mimics the effects of fire and, in savannas adapted to regeneration after fire as most Queensland savannas are, there is a similar response to that after fire.[29] Tree clearing in many savanna communities, although causing a dramatic reduction in basal area and canopy cover, often leaves a high percentage of woody plants alive either as seedlings too small to be affected or as plants capable of re-sprouting from lignotubers and broken stumps. A population of woody plants equal to half or more of the original number often remains following pulling of eucalypt communities, even if all the trees over 5 metres are uprooted completely. Exotic plant species Acacia savanna, Taita Hills Wildlife Sanctuary, Kenya. A number of exotic plants species have been introduced to the savannas around the world. Amongst the woody plant species are serious environmental weeds such as Prickly Acacia (Acacia nilotica), Rubbervine (Cryptostegia grandiflora), Mesquite (Prosopis spp.), Lantana (Lantana camara and L. montevidensis) and Prickly Pear (Opuntia spp.) A range of herbaceous species have also been introduced to these woodlands, either deliberately or accidentally including Rhodes grass and other Chloris species, Buffel grass (Cenchrus ciliaris), Giant rats tail grass (Sporobolus pyramidalis)  parthenium (Parthenium hysterophorus) and stylos (Stylosanthes spp.) and other legumes. These introductions have the potential to significantly alter the structure and composition of savannas worldwide, and have already done so in many areas through a number of processes including altering the fire regime, increasing grazing pressure, competing with native vegetation and occupying previously vacant ecological n iches.[29][30] Other plant species include: white sage, spotted cactus, cotton seed, rosemary. Climate change There exists the possibility that human induced climate change in the form of the greenhouse effect may result in an alteration of the structure and function of savannas. Some authors[31] have suggested that savannas and grasslands may become even more susceptible to woody plant encroachment as a result of greenhouse induced climate change. However, a recent case described a savanna increasing its range at the expense of forest in response to climate variation, and potential exists for similar rapid, dramatic shifts in vegetation distribution as a result of global climate change, particularly at ecotones such as savannas so often represent.[32] Savanna ecoregions Mediterranean savanna in Alentejo region, Portugal. Savanna ecoregions are of several different types: Tropical and subtropical savannas are classified with tropical and subtropical grasslands and shrublands as the tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome. The savannas of Africa, including the Serengeti, famous for its wildlife, are typical of this type. The Brazilian savanna (Cerrado) is also included in this category, known for its exotic and varied flora. Temperate savannas are mid-latitude savannas with wetter summers and drier winters. They are classified with temperate savannas and shrublands as the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome, that for example cover much of the Great Plains of the United States. (See areas such as the Central forest-grasslands transition). Mediterranean savannas are mid-latitude savannas in Mediterranean climate regions, with mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers, part of the  Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome. The oak tree savannas of California, part of the California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion, fall into this category. Flooded savannas are savannas that are flooded seasonally or year-round. They are classified with flooded savannas as the flooded grasslands and savannas biome, which occurs mostly in the tropics and subtropics. Montane savannas are high-altitude savannas, located in a few spots around the worlds high mountain regions, part of the montane grasslands and shrublands biome. The lowland savannas of the Angolan Scarp savanna and woodlands ecoregion are an example.

Anselm’s Philosophy Essay -- Religion Philosophy Philosophical Essays

Anselm’s Philosophy Anselm's definition of AGod starts by saying that God is the greatest being we can possibly think of. When Anselm states this, it essentially means that it is not possible to think of a being greater than God. Anselm also states that if God is the greatest thinkable being, he is referring to the fact that it would be impossible to imagine or to create in ones mind someone or something being better than God. Therefore, it would be impossible to say that God only exists in ones mind because it is much greater to exist in reality than it is to exist only in ones mind. Anselm then suggests that God has many attributes which describe him. Among these being: self-existent, a necessary being, omnipotent, omniscient, completely just and timelessly eternal. After reading the Proslogion by Anselm, it gave me a greater understanding of these attributes listed above. Although, they are all of equal importance, I feel the most prominent of God's attributes is the fact that he is self existent. In essence, that means that God depends on nothing else for his existence, he is uncaused. Therefore, his existence is timelessly-eternal. This means that God cannot stop existing. On the other hand, contingent beings (such as ourselves) depend on something else for their existence. One example of this is, that as a child we utterly depended on our parents for food, clothing, and shelter. Contingent beings therefore can begin to be or cease to be at anytime. They can, unlike God, be here today and gone tomorrow. Anselm uses the definition of God (the ontological argument), in which I have described above, to prove God's existence. As I mentioned, Anselm believes that God is the greatest being we can possibly think of. He does this by first trying to prove the opposite of what he really wants to prove. For example, lets suppose God does not exist in reality. We then could think of something greater, a being that has all the same virtuous characteristics as we think God as having, but also being able to exist in reality. He then tries to prove that this supposition leads to a conclusion which cannot possibly be true. Then the original God would not actually be the greatest thinkable being, this new something else, that actually exists would be. This new God which actually exists would then be able to be seen, heard and touched by the individuals... ...that I have with Anselm's philosophy is that he believes that if you can imagine something existing then it defiantly does exist. In the book Anselm's critics state Athat someone who does not know the meaning of the word, who thinks only of the impression made on his mind by hearing the word and tries to imagine its meaning. (Anselm P. 395) There is no way to use a word such as God as a being or an existence because I believe that everyone has a different definition. I can understand the words Agreatest possible being but understanding this does not necessarily mean that such a being exists. For example, I understand the words Aflying car, but we all know that there are no flying cars. But Anselm argues that AI have the concept of this being in my mind, therefore this being exists. (Anselm p.395) I believe that this is where Anselm takes a giant leap of faith. In conclusion to whether Anselm's definition of God gives actual proof of God's existence, I believe that the only way to believe that God actually exists is by having true faith in him. Although, Anselm gives many possible reasons for God's existence. Most of these reasons are rather vague and unbelievable. Anselm’s Philosophy Essay -- Religion Philosophy Philosophical Essays Anselm’s Philosophy Anselm's definition of AGod starts by saying that God is the greatest being we can possibly think of. When Anselm states this, it essentially means that it is not possible to think of a being greater than God. Anselm also states that if God is the greatest thinkable being, he is referring to the fact that it would be impossible to imagine or to create in ones mind someone or something being better than God. Therefore, it would be impossible to say that God only exists in ones mind because it is much greater to exist in reality than it is to exist only in ones mind. Anselm then suggests that God has many attributes which describe him. Among these being: self-existent, a necessary being, omnipotent, omniscient, completely just and timelessly eternal. After reading the Proslogion by Anselm, it gave me a greater understanding of these attributes listed above. Although, they are all of equal importance, I feel the most prominent of God's attributes is the fact that he is self existent. In essence, that means that God depends on nothing else for his existence, he is uncaused. Therefore, his existence is timelessly-eternal. This means that God cannot stop existing. On the other hand, contingent beings (such as ourselves) depend on something else for their existence. One example of this is, that as a child we utterly depended on our parents for food, clothing, and shelter. Contingent beings therefore can begin to be or cease to be at anytime. They can, unlike God, be here today and gone tomorrow. Anselm uses the definition of God (the ontological argument), in which I have described above, to prove God's existence. As I mentioned, Anselm believes that God is the greatest being we can possibly think of. He does this by first trying to prove the opposite of what he really wants to prove. For example, lets suppose God does not exist in reality. We then could think of something greater, a being that has all the same virtuous characteristics as we think God as having, but also being able to exist in reality. He then tries to prove that this supposition leads to a conclusion which cannot possibly be true. Then the original God would not actually be the greatest thinkable being, this new something else, that actually exists would be. This new God which actually exists would then be able to be seen, heard and touched by the individuals... ...that I have with Anselm's philosophy is that he believes that if you can imagine something existing then it defiantly does exist. In the book Anselm's critics state Athat someone who does not know the meaning of the word, who thinks only of the impression made on his mind by hearing the word and tries to imagine its meaning. (Anselm P. 395) There is no way to use a word such as God as a being or an existence because I believe that everyone has a different definition. I can understand the words Agreatest possible being but understanding this does not necessarily mean that such a being exists. For example, I understand the words Aflying car, but we all know that there are no flying cars. But Anselm argues that AI have the concept of this being in my mind, therefore this being exists. (Anselm p.395) I believe that this is where Anselm takes a giant leap of faith. In conclusion to whether Anselm's definition of God gives actual proof of God's existence, I believe that the only way to believe that God actually exists is by having true faith in him. Although, Anselm gives many possible reasons for God's existence. Most of these reasons are rather vague and unbelievable.

Bilingual Education in Early Childhood Essay

Living in a world on the move, it may well turn out that tomorrow the next-door neighbors of a certain family will be persons who speak what to them is a foreign tongue. For political, economic and social reasons, as well as to further their education, people are relocating themselves in all parts of the globe. Perhaps there is already a foreign-speaking population where you live. Truly, East, West, North and South are meeting as never before. So if the children come running home with the exciting announcement, â€Å"Dad! Mom! We have a new playmate who doesn’t even talk the way we do,† parents might seriously begin to consider teaching their children to speak another language. Before closing one’s mind completely to the prospect, however, consider this fact: Talking to native speakers is one of the best â€Å"teachers† there is. As one is acquainted with them, extending hospitality, an individual will also be able to learn something about their language, and this will enable the parents to teach their children. Indeed, in a global brotherhood that the world is involved with today, it is essential for people to at least learn two or more languages that is widely used by people around the world. This is mainly to be able to catch up with the growing need for language experts in the professional world. However, the question is, when should bilingual education begin? According to Psychologist Dennis Coon, â€Å"the best time of teaching a person how to speak is from the belly of his mother beginning during the pregnancy years† (34). How is this possible? It has been learned through research that children, even when they are still inside the uterus could already interact with the world outside. Moreover, as the infant is born, talking to him in straight words without baby talking seriously developed early speaking skills on many growing babies today. (Coon, 36) It is also according to the authorities that the most effective time of teaching a child to speak his language and at least another one is during the first four formative years of the child’s life. Hence, it is indeed vital to start as early as first year of the baby’s life. A child’s first formative years is the highest capacity of a young mind to grasp the lessons being learned. However, some issues need to be addressed when bilingual education is being discussed. Scope of the Problem In many parts of educational development, bilingual education is treated as learning for non-American students. The use of their native language along with the inculcation of English to their vocabulary is the main aim of this program. According to educators, this is more likely an ESL program that would indeed assist foreign nationals living in the American territories to adapt to the society, especially with regards to children who are born in America. This would help the non-Americans to be ‘one’ with the American community in terms of language. To the educators, this is a way by which America could be able to overcome ethnic differences in the country. However, some language experts say that this is not an easy task for early childhood educators. The fact is that at times, some students come to the American region with a fluency on their native language already and thus may not have so much interest in knowing other languages more. Aside form this, according to some ‘English Only’ advocates, â€Å"bilingualism would only lead to an ethnic line of division between the nationalistic views of the natives of America† (Internet). The Pros of the Issue on Bilingual Education Implementation Many educators are indeed amiable that bilingual education is an essential part of learning especially with children who are of different ethnic society in the United States. Many professional early child education experts consider that through the utilization of bilingualism in the educational systems, children would become more concern and highly, in connection with their environment because of their language. The following are some of the facts that support the said claims of education experts: †¢ Children’s preparedness in facing the society with confidence lies in their ability to speak their thoughts in a way that their peers would understand them. Hence, for ethnic groups in the United States, learning nilingual language is necessary for them to be able to get along well with the American society. †¢ Bilingual education has been proven to sharpen the minds of the young students. The fact that their thinking ability is still budding, learning languages is one of the best ways to develop a young person’s mind through challenging education. †¢ Understanding what the world talks about and being able to respond is an essential part of a person’s life. This factor of being accepted in the society in a simple way f being understood because of language is a great potential for producing confident individuals in the future. The Cons of the Issue Although the fine part of the programmed education has already been laid, not all educators agree of that the bilingual education program would simply do its purpose. To them, the other side of the issue may bring disaster to the American society. How? The details regarding this are as follows: †¢ Teaching the ethnic groups on the use of perfect English language may make their groups stronger that they would be able to rebel against the rules of the law at times that these laws would not be amiable to their wants. †¢ Since the native language of the ethnic groups of the American Society would be used, it could be noticed that there could be a possibility of the lost nationalistic idea in teaching. Some American students may want to learn other languages that may affect their own personalities. As obviously seen, these reasons of the bilingual education implementation’s ineffective effects to the American society may be true, yet at some points exaggerated. It could be observed that by being able to balance the values that bilingual education implies, the said system of teaching young students could as well be beneficial not only for the pupils themselves but also for the whole American community. What Early Childhood Educators Need To Know There are necessary guidelines though that educators need to know when teaching bilingual education to children. The said guidelines are as follows: †¢ Bilingual education helps in the mind-development of handicapped children. (Internet) If incase the class that an educator is supposed tot each involves handicapped children, he must be able to recognize that learning bilingual knowledge is vital for their growth and development as a person of ‘worth’, hence, he should continuously encourage them in learning their lessons well. †¢ Teaching bilingual education requires close interaction with the students, especially with those who are having a hard time coping up with the changes. This has to be done for the educator to be assured that the students under his supervision are learning something from his teachings. †¢ Quality is more important than quantity exposure to the English Language. A child’s ability to speak correctly depends not on the times he is exposed to English speaking people but on the correct teachings of his educators in his class. †¢ ESL is taught more efficiently in natural situations. This means that children are forced to use English when they are faced with situations that require them to do so. With these guidelines, Early childhood educators would be equipped with the necessary points of consideration they have to remember during their teaching sessions. Resources for Early Childhood Educators To be able to meet the challenges of teaching bilingual education to young students, the government of the United States of America provided necessary resources that are available for teachers to utilize. Aside form these, numerous books are also available for study basis on this issue. As for example, Peter Woods’ â€Å"Multicultural Children in the Early Years: Creative Teaching, Meaningful Learning† talks about the necessary factors of consideration that educators should remember upon meeting Multicultural Children in their class. Meanwhile, Tony Cline features several effective curriculum for bilingual education, which were used and proven effective by other educators in his book â€Å"Curriculum Related Assessment, Cummins and Bilingual Children†. Likewise, Angela Carraasquillo’s â€Å"Teaching the Bilingual Special Education Student†, gives guidelines on the teaching methods that could be inculcated in the nature of teaching of the educators to their young students. Finally, Norbert Francis’ â€Å"Language and Literacy Teaching for Indigenous Education: A Bilingual Approach†, helps the educators overcome cultural differences during the entire course of bilingual education instruction processes. By utilizing the said resources, the educators would surely gain the necessary skills that are to be of good use during their teaching sessions with multicultural students. Conclusion Indeed, teaching is an art. Moreover, the artistic approach of this art is further encouraged in teaching students of the bilingual education. Hence, to be able to gain success from the said aspect of teaching, educators must have the right disposition as well as inspiration and reason for teaching. The fact that they realize that they are able to help ethnic groups in the American regions to fit in the society, should make them see the importance of educating the children with bilingual education. BIBLIOGRAPHY Maria Estela Brisk. (2005). Bilingual Education: From Compensatory to Quality Schooling. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. ; 2nd edition. Colin Baker. (2006). Foundations of Bilingual Education And Bilingualism (Bilingual Education and Bilingualism). Multilingual Matters Limited; 4th edition. Olivia N. Saracho. (2004). Contemporary Perspectives on Language Policy and Literacy Instruction in Early Childhood Education (Contemporary Perspectives in Early

The Keynesian and Neoliberal View of Unemployment Essay

Both the Keynesian and Neoliberal era came into existence as an aftermath of both an economic crisis and a war. Keynesianism came after the Second World War when the then neoclassical economy was in crisis. This crisis brought forth Keynesianism with the underlying disbelief in the self-regulating nature of capitalism. The Keynesian ideology believed in increased state intervention to produce economic stability. This policy rested on four policy prescription; full employment; a social safety net; increased labor rights; and investment policies were to be left to private enterprises. Keynesianism’s subsequent inability to deal with the unexpected inflation caused by two international oil crises and during the period of the†¦show more content†¦Evidence of this period can be seen from the dramatic increase in GDP from 15.7 percent to 26.4 percent between 1920 and 1950 then reaching 46.5 percent in 1984 (Course-reader 26: Banting 1986b:2; Bakker 1990:429, Table 2.1 ). Th ere was a general fear that if the economy would land in another economic crisis if reforms were not made. Even capitalist supporters believed that market could simply not survive without some degree of state intervention and regulation (Course-reader 24:Savage and Robins 1982: ix). The fall of the Keynesian (the Keynesian crisis) era was instigated by the inflation caused by the 1973 Arab oil embargo and the subsequent increase in oil prices by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). This fall in the Keynesian era was accompanied with capital flight, decline in profits and De-industrialization in the economy. The neoliberal era on the other hand, made its debut in 1984 after the defeat of the Trudeau administration and is the era we are in today. Comparable to the Keynesian era, the neoliberal era was a response to the crisis of the Keynesian era in the 1970s and 1980s. 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